Issue:
100
Page: 1-7
Pomegranate Punica granatum Family: Lythraceae
by Gayle Engels, Josef Brinckmann
HerbalGram.
2013; American Botanical Council
INTRODUCTION
Pomegranate
is a deciduous shrub or small tree, sometimes thorny, growing to 16 feet (five
meters) tall.1-3 It has oblong, shiny, leathery leaves up to three
inches (eight centimeters) in length, and the scarlet funnel-shaped flower has
five-to-eight rumpled petals with a matching calyx.1-5 The fruit is
a large berry with tough, leathery skin (called a husk, rind, or pericarp),
with a persistent calyx and fleshy pulp enclosing edible seeds.2,3,5
The
pomegranate is believed to have originated in Persia (modern-day Iran),
Afghanistan, Pakistan (particularly the province of Baluchistan),6
and perhaps northern India. It was spread throughout the Middle East to
Southeastern Europe around the Mediterranean, to China, North Africa, and
eventually to warm regions of the New World.2,3,7 In India, P.
granatum is found in the wild only in the Western Himalayan regions comprising
the states of Jammu, Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand.8 To
the northwest of Iran — in Armenia,
Azerbaijan, and Georgia — there are
wild pomegranate groves found outside of abandoned ancient settlements.9
Naturalized in Western China, it was probably introduced there from
Central Asia during the Han Dynasty (207 BCE to 220 CE).10
The pericarp
and pulp of the fruit as well as the root bark are used either culinarily or
medicinally.1-3
HISTORY AND CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE
Pomegranate
is one of only two species in the Punica genus; it was the sole genus in
the Punicaceae family prior to its reclassification in Lythraceae.7
The generic epithet, Punica, is the feminized Latin name for Carthage,
originally from the Greek Phoinix referring to the Phoenician settlers
around Carthage. The specific epithet, granatum, means seedy or grainy.
Prior to its renaming by Linnaeus in the 18th century, the plant was known as Malum
punicum, the apple of Carthage.7
In the 12th
century, the Anglo-Norman name for the fruit, pome gernate, became pume grenate in Old French and eventually pomme grenade in Modern French.11 By the
15th century, hand-thrown weapons made of cast iron and filled with gunpowder
had been invented and called grenades. To this day, opening a grenade exposes
tiny balls of shrapnel that resemble a pomegranate’s
seeds.
The name for
pomegranate in both Arabic (rumman) and Hebrew (rimmon) means “fruit of
paradise,” and it has been a symbol of love
since ancient times.1,7 It was mentioned multiple times in the
Biblical Song of Songs, also known as the Song of Solomon (Solomon 4:3, 4:13,
6:7, 6:11, 7:12, and 8:2); it played a large role in the Greek myth of
Persephone; and it was associated commonly with Aphrodite and Dionysius.1,7
Even Shakespeare made note of the pomegranate tree in Romeo and Juliet.12
Pomegranate
has been affiliated with abundance, blessings, fertility, immortality,
invincibility, posterity, prosperity, and the endurance of marriage.1,7
While its multitude of seeds might explain why pomegranate is linked with
fertility, it is interesting to note that in one version of the Greek myth, Persephone,
daughter of the fertility goddess, Demeter, disobeyed her father, Zeus, and ate
some pomegranate seeds while in the underworld, causing Demeter’s
distress and the onset of autumn and winter in the world above (i.e., an
interruption of fertility).13 Perhaps not coincidentally,
contraception was one of the earliest reported medicinal uses of pomegranate.
The Greek physician Soranus recorded five prescriptions for either oral
contraceptives or vaginal suppositories made from pomegranate seeds or rinds.14
Hippocrates (468-377 BCE), Dioscorides (40-90 CE), and Ibn Sina (Avicenna,
980-1037 CE) also described the contraceptive use of pomegranate seeds or
rinds.14 By the Middle Ages, though, pomegranates had disappeared
from medical writings for this purpose.
Historically,
pomegranate has been significant in several cultures for its food and medicinal
uses, as well as for its spiritual and artistic symbolism. The fruit was an
extremely useful way of transporting liquid when traveling through the desert.7
In addition to its juice, the arils (juicy pulp covering the seeds) were and
are a distinctive component of certain Middle Eastern dishes: fesenjan (lamb
or chicken stew with walnuts and pomegranates), khosaf al-rumman (pomegranate
with nuts and orange flower syrup), and pomegranate khoresh (stew), to
name a few.
Pomegranate
is mentioned as a remedy for roundworm in the Ebers Papyrus (the oldest
preserved medical document, from Egypt, ca. 1500 BCE).15 Hippocrates
used pomegranate seed extracts for numerous ailments including skin and eye
inflammation and as a digestive aid, while Dioscorides recommended various
pomegranate parts, sometimes in combination with other ingredients, for stomach
ailments, mouth and genital sores, gum disorders and loose teeth, as well as
for expelling parasites.7 Treatment of bronchitis, diabetes,
diarrhea, hemorrhaging, leprosy, and snakebites are all traditional uses of
pomegranate.7 Both the dried fruit rind and pulp have been used
commonly for upset stomachs and diarrhea, prepared as infusions (teas) or
tinctures (alcoholic extractions).3
Most parts
of the pomegranate including
the flower, fruit rind, leaf, dried seed and fresh seed, root bark or trunk
bark, fresh fruit and preparations thereof (e.g., juice) — have defined therapeutic applications
in traditional medicine systems such as Ayurveda, Siddha, gSo-ba Rig-pa
(Traditional Bhutanese), Sowa-Rigpa (Traditional Tibetan), Traditional Chinese
Medicine (TCM), Traditional Iranian Medicine, Unani, and European Homoeopathy.
The fresh fruit and fruit juice are used widely as foods and the juice also is
used as a source of polyphenols. Essential oils, extracts, and waters of
various plant parts, as well as isolates and derivatives such as pomegranate
fruit peel extract octenylsuccinate, seed oil hydroxyphenethyl esters, and
sterols obtained from the seed oil, are used as cosmetic ingredients.
The flower,
fruit, fruit rind, and seed of P. granatum L. var. granatum are
used specifically in Ayurveda, Siddha, Sowa-Rigpa (Amchi), and Unani systems of
traditional medicine in India, and in regional Indian folk medicines. The
materials of commerce are obtained from both cultivated and wild-collected
sources. The flower of P. granatum L. var. nana Pers.
(cultivated) is used in Indian folk medicine.16
In TCM,
pomegranate husk/rind (called shi liu pi) is used to treat diarrhea,
dysentery, rectal prolapse, spermatorrhea and premature ejaculation, uterine
bleeding, vaginal discharge due to kidney instability, and to kill and expel
parasites.17 It also is used topically for ringworm and in
combination with other herbs for the conditions mentioned above.17
The dried
ripe fruit (with seeds removed) is used in Tibetan medicine to restore weak
digestive heat, to correct indigestion and loss of appetite, and for all forms
of cold diseases and disorders of the lungs.18 In the
Bhutanese system of medicine, it functions as a primary component of herbal
combinations in pill form indicated for treatment of indigestion and diarrhea.19
According to
the World Health Organization (WHO) monograph Cortex Granati, therapeutic uses
described in pharmacopeias and well-established documents for preparations of
the root bark and/or trunk bark (aqueous decoction and/or hydroalcoholic
fluidextract 1:1) include treatment of diarrhea and intestinal parasites. In
systems of traditional medicine, preparations of the bark are used for
treatment of dyspepsia, sore throat, menorrhagia (heavy menstrual bleeding),
leucorrhoea (vaginal discharge), and ulcers.20
CURRENT AUTHORIZED USES IN COSMETICS,
FOODS, AND MEDICINES
In the
Ayurvedic system of medicine (recognized in India, Bangladesh, Bhutan,
Malaysia, Nepal, and Sri Lanka), the therapeutic uses of the different plant
parts are similar to what has been described previously, with some notable
exceptions:
The fresh
fruit juice of pomegranate at a dose of 15-30 mL is used in formulations for
treating conditions including bleeding disorder (hemorrhagic diseases, i.e.,
bleeding with stools or from nose, excessive bleeding during menstruation, or
bleeding from any other part of the body without injury), burning sensation in
the eyes, chest, palm and/or soles of feet (e.g., diabetic neuropathy); cough,
diarrhea, fever, loss of taste sensation, rheumatoid arthritis, and thirst.21
The dried
and powdered fruit rind at a dose of 3-6 g is indicated for bleeding disorder
and disorders of blood, burning sensation, cough, diarrhea, dysentery, fever,
halitosis (bad breath), hyperacidity of the stomach, loss of taste sensation,
and throat diseases.21
The dried
leaf at a dose of 5-10 g is indicated for treatment of bleeding disorder,
cough, diarrhea, digestive impairment, dysentery, fever, helminthiasis (worm
infestation), loss of taste sensation, and stomatitis (inflamed and sore
mouth).21
Dried
powdered pomegranate seeds are used in Ayurvedic medicine at a recommended dose
of 5-10 g for treatment of burning sensation, fever, and morbid thirst.22
In the Unani
system of medicine (recognized in Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Pakistan, and
Sri Lanka), various pomegranate plant parts also have different therapeutic
indications usually occurring as components of complex formulations:
The dried
leaf at a dose of 5-10 g is used for diarrhea, chest pain, palpitations,
spermatorrhea (involuntary discharge of semen without orgasm), stomatitis, and
vomiting.23
The dried
seed at a dose of 5-10 g is used for treatment of cardiac weakness, chest pain,
jaundice, as an emetic (to induce vomiting), and as a purgative (for intestinal
evacuation in certain diseases).24
The fresh
seed prepared as juice at a dose of 25-60 mL is used for treating anemia,
burning in the chest, general weakness, jaundice, nausea and vomiting, and
polydipsia (chronic excessive thirst).
In Canada,
extract of pomegranate fruit and/or aril is classified as a medicinal
ingredient of licensed natural health products (NHPs) requiring pre-marketing
authorization from the Natural Health Products Directorate (NHPD) and
manufacture in compliance with NHP Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs). “Provides
antioxidants” is the NHPD-authorized use for the
extract.26
Several
pomegranate ingredients also are permitted for use as non-medicinal components
of licensed NHPs for specific purposes, including “concentrated
pomegranate juice” as a flavor enhancer, “Punica granatum fruit extract” as a fragrance ingredient in topical
application NHPs, and various extracts of the pericarp and/or seed and fixed
oil of the seed as skin-conditioning agents.27
In the
United States, essential oils, solvent-free extracted oleoresins, and natural
extractives of pomegranate are classified by the Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) for use in conventional food
products.28 For use as a source of polyphenols, a pomegranate fruit
juice monograph is under development by the United States Pharmacopeial
Convention for inclusion in the forthcoming ninth edition of the Food Chemicals
Codex.29
Pomegranate
plant parts also are permitted for use as dietary supplement components,
requiring FDA notification within 30 days of product marketing (if a “structure-function” claim is made) and product manufacturing according to dietary supplement GMPs.
In the
European Union, the present regulatory status for the use of fruit oil and rind
of P. granatum in conventional food products is uncertain. There has
been a request made to determine if the fruit oil and rind will require
authorization under the Novel Food Regulation.30
Additionally,
the 2013 European Pharmacopoeia Commission work program is developing a new
quality standards monograph for the homeopathic preparation “Punica granatum ad praeparationes homoeopathicas.” 31
There are
nearly 30 different pomegranate ingredients authorized for use in cosmetic
products by the European Commission Health and Consumers Directorate — too many to list and discuss in this
review. Some examples include the fruit juice for masking (reduces or inhibits
the basic odor or taste of the product) and skin-conditioning functions. Fruit
water (an aqueous solution of the steam distillates obtained from the fruit) is
authorized for functions including astringent (contracts the skin), flavoring,
tonic (produces a feeling of well-being on skin and hair), and masking. “Punica
Granatum Sterols” (a mixture
of sterols obtained from the fixed oil of the seeds) is used for skin- and
hair-conditioning functions.32
Corresponding
to some of the authorized uses discussed in this article, quality standards
monographs are available for specifying and testing the various plant parts of P.
granatum (e.g., fresh fruit, dried fruit rind, dried leaf, dried seed,
fresh seed, root bark or trunk bark) published in the Ayurvedic
Pharmacopoeia of India (Vol. 2, 1999, and Vol. 4, 2004),21-22 Unani
Pharmacopoeia of India (Vol. 2, 2007; Vol. 4, 2007; and Vol. 6, 2009),23-25
and WHO monographs (Vol. 4, 2009).20
For quality
control in food applications there are also pomegranate standards,
specifications, and test methods available from the East African Community
(East African Standard CD/K/102:2010),33 The Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (Codex Standard 310-2013),34
the Government of India Ministry of Agriculture (AGMARK Grading and Marking
Rules 2004),35 and the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO 23393:2006).36
MODERN RESEARCH
Pomegranate
is a relatively good source of several vitamins and minerals such as vitamin C,
thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, calcium, iron, and magnesium.37 All
plant parts contain polyphenols; the pericarp (both the peel and the membrane)
has the largest concentration.5 Polyphenols are responsible for the
astringency of the juice and comprise two major classes of compounds — hydrolysable tannins and flavonoids — which are believed to be responsible
for pomegranate’s beneficial actions. Numerous in
vitro studies have documented the strong antioxidant properties of pomegranate.5
In 2012, a
randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel group study examined the effect of
pomegranate juice on pulse wave velocity (PWV), a measure of arterial stiffness
that is a predictor of future cardiovascular events.38 Healthy
participants (n=51) were randomly assigned to consume 330 ml/day pomegranate
juice (PJ; Pomepure®,
extracted using an industrial centrifugal juice extractor, The Pure Juice
Company Ltd; Twickenham, UK) or placebo beverage for four weeks. Measurements
were made at baseline and four weeks. While mean arterial pressure and
diastolic and systolic blood pressure all decreased in the PJ group, PWV did
not. The authors state numerous limitations to the study, among them the fact
that subjects’ compliance was not confirmed, dietary intake was not
assessed, the intervention period (four weeks) was short, and the pomegranate
juice was not profiled to check for adulteration, although its total
antioxidant capacity and content of phenolic compounds and potassium were
consistent with reported values.
A study
published in 2012 investigated the results of a randomized, placebo-controlled,
double-blind clinical trial wherein 101 chronic hemodialysis (HD) patients
received, during each dialysis, 100 cc PJ (0.7 mmol/100 cc juice polyphenols,
Naturafood Ltd; Givat Hen, Israel) or matching placebo, three times/week for
one year.39 HD patients frequently experience increased systemic
inflammation and oxidative stress leading to atherosclerosis. The PJ group
experienced reduced inflammation biomarker levels and protein and lipid
oxidation. PJ intake also resulted in fewer second hospitalizations due to
infections and improvement in the atherosclerotic process in 25% of patients.
The beneficial effects disappeared three months after the study ended. The
authors state that the findings are novel and should be replicated and
validated in order to make PJ intake a part of dialysis therapy.
A number of
human clinical studies have been conducted investigating the efficacy in
cardiovascular health of POM Wonderful® Pomegranate Juice (POM;
proprietary product made exclusively from the whole fruits of the ‘Wonderful’ variety, POM
Wonderful, LLC; Los Angeles, CA). In a small, open-label, parallel group
clinical trial in 2004 that ran for one year, 19 patients with carotid artery
stenosis (CAS, hardening of the carotid artery; 70-90% occlusion) were randomly
assigned to take 50 ml/day POM or no treatment.40 The group taking
POM experienced a decrease in the properties that lead to hardening of the
arteries, such as carotid thickness, lowered systolic blood pressure, and
platelet aggregation. However, the two groups were not treated equally; there
was no placebo for the control group, and the POM group received more
interventions — such as blood draws and carotid
ultrasounds — than the control group.
A
three-month, open-label, control group comparison published in 2006 was
conducted with 10 non-insulin-dependent diabetics and 10 healthy age-matched
controls.41 Each participant was given 50 ml of concentrated POM
diluted 1:5 with water to equal eight oz./day. In the diabetic group, serum
C-peptide levels were reduced by 23% after POM consumption. Results also
indicated that POM had a beneficial effect on oxidative stress experienced by
diabetics. Additionally, POM consumption did not worsen the diabetic
parameters, as the authors had feared.
A 2005
randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical study investigated the
effect PJ had on myocardial perfusion in patients with coronary heart disease
(CHD) and myocardial ischemia.42 Over three months, 45 patients with
stable CHD ingested 240 ml (eight oz.) POM per day or a modified sports drink
placebo. At baseline and at three months, patients underwent treadmill or
pharmacologic stress testing. Of the 39 individuals who completed the regimen
and underwent testing, stress-induced ischemia decreased in the POM group (by
17% compared to baseline) and increased by 18% in the control group.
In a small
open-label study in 2001, 10 hypertensive patients (seven male, three female,
all nonsmokers, two diabetic, and two hyper lipidemic) consumed 50 ml POM
concentrate per day for two weeks to see if it had an effect on hypertension
and angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE).43 Blood pressure and ACE
activity were measured before and after POM intake. Juice consumption resulted
in a small (5%) but significant reduction of systolic blood pressure and a
significant (36%) decrease in ACE activity in seven of the 10 patients.
An 18-month,
multi-center, randomized, double-blinded, two-dose human clinical trial in 2013
investigated the ability of a pomegranate extract (POMx) to increase
prostate-specific antigen doubling time (PSADT) in men with rising PSA and no
metastases.44 PSADT is a predictor of metastasis-free survival and
overall survival in patients who have undergone primary therapy for localized
prostate cancer. In this study, 104 patients were randomly assigned to receive
three capsules of POMx (1000 mg/capsule, polyphenol extract, comparable to
about eight oz. pomegranate juice, POM Wonderful, LLC) or one capsule POMx plus
two placebo capsules (to equal three capsules). Both low-dose and high-dose
groups experienced (greater
than or equal to) six-month increases in PSADT without adverse effects. The
authors state that the significance of the study is unclear and that
placebo-controlled studies are needed in this patient population.
In a 2006
phase II, open-label, single-arm clinical trial, 46 men with recurrent prostate
cancer and rising PSA took eight oz./day of POM until their disease progressed.45
PSA values were measured at least three times over six months prior to the
beginning of the treatment, and PSA values as well as blood and urine for
laboratory studies were taken at three-month intervals. A positive response was
defined as a 50% decrease in measured serum PSA
levels, and progressive disease was defined as either a > 100% increase in
PSA compared with the best response observed or any documentation of metastatic
or recurrent disease. Treatment with POM significantly lengthened the PSADT in
the patients; mean PSADT increased from 15 months at baseline to 54 months
after treatment; and seven subjects experienced decreased PSA over time.
A few
studies have investigated the potential of pomegranate to help with the control
of dental plaque. In one study published in 2009, 32 healthy men and women with
good oral hygiene habits in a randomized, single-blinded, controlled study were
assigned to rinse their mouths three times daily (one minute per rinse) with 35
ml of a pomegranate extract-containing aqueous solution (Pomella® Extract;
standardized to contain 30% punicalagins, Verdure Sciences; Noblesville, IN) or
placebo rinse for four weeks.46 Saliva samples revealed that rinsing
with a flavonoid-rich pomegranate extract reduced total protein, which can
correlate with lowered plaque formation, as well as reductions in cell injury
indicators, sucrose degradation, and possible oral oxidant stress, as well as
increased radical scavenging capacity.
In an
earlier study, 60 subjects were divided into three groups of 20 who, following
24 hours of no dental hygiene, had dental plaque samples taken, then rinsed
with one of three mouthwashes.47 The mouthwashes were chlorhexidine
gluconate (0.12% PerioGard®, Kolynos of Brazil; São
Paulo, Brazil [now Colgate-Palmolive; New York]), or hydroalcoholic extract
(HAE, 1:1 by volume) of pomegranate (50-60 mg/mL)(Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza,
Brazil), or a control of just the hydroalcoholic extract. The subjects in the
HAE and PerioGard groups showed a positive response, i.e., a reduction in oral
bacteria as measured by colony forming units (CFUs) after rinsing. The HAE
group had an 83.5% reduction and the PerioGard group had a 79.0% reduction in
CFUs. The control group had a non-significant reduction of 11.3%. The authors
speculate that the equivalent effect of HAE of pomegranate to chlorhexidine may
be due to the hydrolysable tannins in pomegranate, particularly punicalagin,
but that further studies are needed to identify the active constituents.
FUTURE OUTLOOK
According to
the Iranian regional standard for pomegranate, “In addition to Iran which has the
highest area under cultivation, highest production, and is the number one
exporter, other countries including Turkey, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India,
Armenia, Georgia, Tajikistan, Jordan, Egypt, Italy, Tunisia, Azerbaijan, Libya,
Lebanon, Sudan, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Mauritania, Morocco, Cyprus, Spain,
Greece, France, China, Japan, and the US are among the countries which have
areas under pomegranate cultivation.However, among these countries, India, the
Central Asian Republics, Upper Caucuses, and Spain have the highest area under
cultivation and varietals diversity. Consumption of pomegranate in Iran is
estimated to be on average between 7-8 kg per person per year.”48
Total
worldwide production of pomegranate is approximately 1.5-to-two metric tons
(MT), with Iran and India producing most of the global supply. For the juice
market, Iran and India together account for about 95% of concentrate
production.49
In the
United States, most of the pomegranate crop is grown in California. Canada is
the number-one export destination for US-grown pomegranates, followed by Korea,
Taiwan, Australia, Japan, Mexico, and Russia.50 In 2011, California
had an estimated 30,000 acres (12,140 hectares) of pomegranates under
cultivation.51
Pomegranate
dietary supplement sales were ranked 42nd in the US food, drug, and mass market
channel in 2012 with $2,558,509 in sales, down 25.4% from the previous year.52
In the natural food channel (not including Whole Foods Market), pomegranate
ranked 66th with sales of $1,062,539, down 3.4% from 2011.53 (These
statistics do not include the sales of pomegranate juices, which are
significantly higher.) In Canada, at the time of this writing, there were 188
licensed NHPs containing pomegranate as a medicinal ingredient and another 70
NHPs containing some form of pomegranate as a non-medicinal ingredient.54
The United
States Agency for International Development is currently working with
Afghanistan to increase its pomegranate production and exportation. Trade
relationships were established in 2011 among Kandahar pomegranate traders and
India, Pakistan, and Europe, ultimately leading to exports of more than 2,700
MTs of pomegranates from Afghanistan.55 In the year ending May 2012,
Innova Market Insights stated that new products featuring pomegranate increased
15% worldwide from the previous year.56
—Gayle Engels and Josef Brinckmann
References
- Still DW. Pomegranates: A
botanical perspective. In: Seeram N, Schulman R, Heber D, eds. Pomegranates:
Ancient Roots to Modern Medicine. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2006:199-209.
- Bruneton J. Pharmacognosy, Phytochemistry, Medicinal Plants. Paris:
Lavoisier Publishing; 1999.
- Van Wyk BE, Wink M. Medicinal
Plants of the World. Portland, OR:
Timber Press; 2004.
- Bown D. Herbal: The
Essential Guide to Herbs for Modern Living. New York, NY: Barnes and Noble;
2001.
- McCutcheon A, Udani J, Brown DJ.
American
Botanical Council Proprietary Botanical Food Product Scientific and Clinical
Monograph for POM Wonderful®Pomegranate Juice. Austin, TX: American Botanical
Council; 2008.
- Unani Pharmacopoeia Committee.
Anardana (seed). In: The Unani Pharmacopoeia of India, Part I,
Volume II. New Delhi, Government of India, Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare, Department of Ayurveda, Yoga-Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha &
Homoeopathy (AYUSH). 2007.
- Stover E, Mercure EW. The
pomegranate: a new look at the fruit of paradise. Hort
Science. August
2007;42(5):1088-1092.
- Narzary D, Mahar KS, Rana TS,
Ranade SA. Analysis of genetic diversity among wild pomegranates in western
Himalaya, using PCR methods. Sci Hort.
2009;121:237-242.
- Schindler S. Punica
granatum.
In: Monographs for Selected Wild Collected Plants of Commercial Interest
from the Caucasus Region. Eschborn,
Germany: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH. 2010.
- Qin HN,
Graham S. Punica Linnaeus. In: Flora of China. Beijing: Science Press.
St. Louis, MO: Missouri Botanical Garden. 2007;13:283.
- Gearing J.
Pomegranates and Hand Grenades. Beyond Words – Language
Blog. ALTA Language Services website. Available at:
www.altalang.com/beyond-words/2009/07/13/pomegranates-and-hand-grenades/.
Accessed October 8, 2013.
- Shakespeare
W. Romeo and Juliet. Act 3, scene 5, line 4.
- Riddle JM. Eve’s
Herbs: A History of Contraception and Abortion in the West. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press; 1999.
- Foster S, Johnson RL. National Geographic Desk
Reference to Nature's Medicine. Washington,
DC: National Geographic; 2006.
- Ebbell B
(Translator). The Papyrus Ebers: The Greatest Egyptian Medical Document.
Copenhagen: Levin & Munksgaard; 1937. Available at:
http://web.archive.org/web/20050226100008/http://www.macalester.edu/~cuffel/ebers.htm.
Accessed September 27, 2013.
- Ved DK,
Goraya GS. Demand and Supply of Medicinal Plants in India. Dehra Dun, India:
Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh. 2008.
- Bensky D, Gamble A. Chinese Herbal Medicine Materia
Medica, Revised
Edition. Seattle, WA: Eastland Press; 1993.
- Dawa D. Punica
granatum L. In: A Clear Mirror of Tibetan Medicinal Plants, Volume
One. Rome, Italy: Cultural Association Tibet Domani. 1999.
- Sebru-4. In: Traditional Medicine National
Formulary,
second edition. Institute of Traditional Medicine Services. Available at:
www.health.gov.bt/itms/06medicine/06htm/06meng_s/72se.bru-4l.htm. Accessed
October 2, 2013.
- World Health
Organization. Cortex Granati. In: WHO Monographs on Selected Medicinal Plants,
Volume 4. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. 2009.
- Ayurvedic
Pharmacopoeia Committee. Dadima (fresh fruit); Dadima (fruit rind); and Dadima (leaf).
In: The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India, Part I, Volume IV, First
Edition. New Delhi, Government of India, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare,
Department of Ayurveda, Yoga-Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha & Homoeopathy
(AYUSH). 2004.
- Ayurvedic
Pharmacopoeia Committee. Dadima (seed). In: The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of
India, Part I, Volume II, First Edition. New Delhi, Government of India,
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Department of Ayurveda,
Yoga-Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha & Homoeopathy (AYUSH). 1999.
- Unani
Pharmacopoeia Committee. Anar (leaf). In: The Unani Pharmacopoeia of India,
Part I, Volume II, First Edition. New Delhi, Government of India, Ministry of
Health and Family Welfare, Department of Ayurveda, Yoga-Naturopathy, Unani,
Siddha & Homoeopathy (AYUSH). 2007.
- Unani
Pharmacopoeia Committee. Anar (dried seed). In: The Unani Pharmacopoeia of
India, Part I, Volume IV, First Edition. New Delhi, Government of India,
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Department of Ayurveda,
Yoga-Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha & Homoeopathy (AYUSH). 2007.
- Unani
Pharmacopoeia Committee. Anar (fresh seed). In: The Unani Pharmacopoeia of
India, Part I, Volume VI, First Edition. New Delhi, Government of India,
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Department of Ayurveda,
Yoga-Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha & Homoeopathy (AYUSH). 2009.
- Natural
Health Products Directorate (NHPD). Monograph: Pomegranate. Ottawa, Ontario:
NHPD. August 12, 2013. Available at:
http://webprod.hc-sc.gc.ca/nhpid-bdipsn/atReq.do?atid=pomegranate.grenade&lang=eng.
Accessed October 2, 2013.
- Natural
Health Products Directorate (NHPD). Punica granatum. In: Natural Health
Products Ingredients Database. Available at:
http://webprod.hc-sc.gc.ca/nhpid-bdipsn/search-rechercheReq.do. Accessed
October 2, 2013.
- Food and
Drug Administration (FDA). §182.20
Essential oils, oleoresins (solvent-free), and natural extractives (including
distillates). In: Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21 (21CFR).
Washington, DC: National Archives and Records Administration’s
Office. 2013.
- United
States Pharmacopeial Convention. Pomegranate Juice. Food Chemicals Codex
Forum. June 2013.
- European
Commission Health & Consumers Directorate. Novel Food Catalogue. Brussels,
Belgium: European Commission. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/biotechnology/novelfood/novel_food_catalogue_en.htm.
Accessed October 2, 2013.
- European
Directorate for the Quality of Medicines (EDQM). Updated work programme of the
European Pharmacopoeia. Pharmeuropa. March
2013.
- European Commission
Health & Consumers Directorate. Cosmetic Ingredients and Substances (CosIng®) Database.
Brussels, Belgium: European Commission. Available at:
http://ec.europa.eu/consumers/cosmetics/cosing/. Accessed October 2, 2013.
- East African
Community. East African Standard CD/K/102:2010. Pomegranate fruit — Specification and test methods.
Arusha, Tanzania: East African Community. 2010.
- Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. Codex Stan 310-2013.
Codex Standard for Pomegranate. Rome, Italy: FAO. 2013.
- Government
of India. Grade Designation and Quality of Pomegranate. In: Fruits and
Vegetables Grading and Marking Rules, 2004. New Delhi, India: Ministry of
Agriculture. 2004.
- International
Organization for Standardization. ISO 23393:2006. Pomegranate fruit — Specification and test methods.
Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization For Standardization. 2006.
- Duke JA. Dr.
Duke's phytochemical and ethnobotanical databases. Available at:
www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/duke/farmacy2.pl. Accessed September 25, 2013.
- Lynn A,
Hamadeh H, Leung WC, Russell JM, Barker ME. Effects of pomegranate juice
supplementation on pulse wave velocity and blood pressure in healthy young and
middle-aged men and women. Plant Foods Hum Nutr. 2012;67:309-314.
- Shema-Didi
L, Sela S, Ore L, et al. One year of pomegranate juice intake decreases
oxidative stress, inflammation, and incidence of infections in hemodialysis
patients: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Free Radic Biol Med. 2012;53(2):297-304.
- Aviram M,
Rosenblat M, Gaitini D, et al. Pomegranate juice consumption for 3 years by
patients with carotid artery stenosis reduces common carotid intima-media
thickness, blood pressure and LDL oxidation. Clin Nutr. 2004;23:423-433.
- Rosenblat M,
Hayek T, Aviram M. Anti-oxidative effects of pomegranate juice (PJ) consumption
by diabetic patients on serum and macrophages. Atherosclerosis. 2006;186:363-371.
- Sumner MD,
Elliott-Eller M, Weidner G. Effects of pomegranate juice consumption on
myocardial perfusion in patients with coronary heart disease. Am J Cardiol. 2005;96(6):810-814.
- Aviram M,
Dornfeld L. Pomegranate juice consumption inhibits serum angiotensin converting
enzyme activity and reduces systolic blood pressure. Artherosclerosis. 2001;158:195-198.
- Paller CJ,
Ye X, Wozniak PJ, et al. A randomized phase II study of pomegranate extract for
men with rising PSA following initial therapy for localized prostate cancer. Prostate
Cancer and Prostatic Diseases. 2013;16:50-55.
- Pantuck AJ,
Leppert JT, Zomorodian N, et al. Phase II study of pomegranate juice for men
with rising prostate-specific antigen following surgery or radiation for
prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2006;12(13):4018-4026.
- DiSilvestro
RA, DiSilvestro DJ, DiSilvestro DJ. Pomegranate extract mouth rinsing effects
on saliva measures relevant to gingivitis risk. Phytother Res. 2009;23:1123-1127.
- Menezes S, Cordeiro L, Viana G. Punica
granatum (pomegranate)
extract is active against dental plaque. J Herbal Pharmacother. 2006;6(2):79-92.
- Islamic
Republic of Iran. Project document for a regional standard for Pomegranate.
Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme. FAO/WHO Coordinating Committee for the
Near East Fifth Session. Tunis, Tunisia. January 26-29, 2009.
- Brinckmann
J. Taking a closer look at the pomegranate fruit trade from Africa. In: Market
News Service for Medicinal Plants & Extracts. Geneva, Switzerland: ITC/UNCTAD/WTO. 2011;37:7-13.
- Pomegranate.
The California Rare Fruit Grower’s website.
Available at: www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/pomegranate.html. Accessed October 1, 2013.
- Geisler M.
Pomegranates profile. Agricultural Marketing Resource Center (AgMRC) website.
Available at: www.agmrc.org/commodities__products/fruits/pomegranates-profile/.
Accessed October 1, 2013.
- Symphony IRI
Group, a Chicago-based market research firm. FDM market sales data for herbal
supplements, 52 weeks ending December 23, 2012.
- SPINSscan
Natural, Total US, 52 weeks ending December 24, 2011 and year ago,
SPINS-defined herbal category.
- Natural
Health Products Directorate (NHPD). Licensed Natural Health Products Database
(LNHPD). Available at:
http://webprod3.hc-sc.gc.ca/lnhpd-bdpsnh/start-debuter.do?lang=eng. Accessed
October 2, 2013.
- Fact sheet:
strengthening market chains for Afghan grapes and pomegranates. USAID
Afghanistan website. Available at:
http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/USAID/Activity/112/Global_Development_Alliance_for_Strengthening_Market_Chains_for_Afghan_Raisins_and_Pomegranates_GDA.
Accessed October 1, 2013.
- Innova
Market Insights. Today's superfruit stars. Nutritional
Outlook website. Available at:
www.nutritionaloutlook.com/article/today%E2%80%99s-superfruit-stars-3-10560.
Accessed October 1, 2013.
|